Presidents and prime ministers Characteristics of parliaments Parliamentary system twice as common Chief executive chosen by legislature Cabinet ministers chosen from among members of parliament Prime minister remains in power as long as his or her party or coalition maintains a majority in the legislature Differences Presidents are often outsiders; prime ministers are always insiders, chosen by party members in parliament Presidents choose their cabinet from outside Congress; prime ministers choose members of parliament Presidents have no guaranteed majority in the legislature; prime ministers always have a majority. The United States usually has a divided government. Presidents and the legislature often work at cross-purposes Even when one party controls both branches A consequence of separation of powers Only Roosevelt and Johnson had much luck with Congress Divided versus unified government Fifteen of twenty-two congressional/presidential elections since 1952 produced divided government Americans dislike divided government because it can lead to gridlock. Does gridlock matter? But divided government enacts as many important laws as a unified government Reason: Unified government is something of a myth in U.S. Is policy gridlock bad? Unclear whether gridlock is always bad; it is a necessary consequence of representative democracy Representative democracy opposite direct democracy Evolution of the Presidency Delegates feared both anarchy and monarchy Idea of a plural executive Idea of an executive checked by a council Concerns of the Founders Fear of military power of president who could overpower states Fear of presidential corruption of Senate Fear of presidential bribery to ensure reelection The electoral college Each state to choose own method for selecting electors Electors to meet in own capital to vote for president and vice president If no majority, House would decide The president's term of office Precedent of George Washington and two terms Twenty-second Amendment in 1951 limits to two terms Problem of establishing the legitimacy of the office Provision for orderly transfer of power
The first presidents Prominent men helped provide legitimacy Minimal activism of early government contributed to lessening fear of the presidency Appointed people of stature in the community (rule of fitness) Relations with Congress were reserved; few vetoes, no advice The Jacksonians Jackson sought to maximize powers of presidency Vigorous use of veto for policy reasons Challenged Congress The reemergence of Congress With brief exceptions the next hundred years was a period of congressional ascendancy Intensely divided public opinion Only Lincoln expanded presidential power Asserted "implied powers" and power of commander in chief Justified by emergency conditions President mostly a negative force to Congress until the New Deal Since the 1930s power has been institutionalized in the presidency Popular conception of the president as the center of government contradicts reality; Congress often policy leader The Powers of the Pres Formal powers found in Article II Not a large number of explicit powers Potential for power found in ambiguous clauses of the Constitution, such as power as commander in chief and duty to "take care that laws be faithfully executed" Greatest source of power lies in politics and public opinion Increase in broad statutory authority Expectation of presidential leadership from the public The Office of the Pres The White House Office Contains the president's closest assistants Three types of organization Circular Pyramid Ad hoc Staff typically worked on the campaign: a few are experts Relative influence of staff depends on how close one's office is to the president's The Exec Office of the Pres Composed of agencies that report directly to the president Appointments must receive Senate confirmation Office of Management and Budget most important Assembles the budget Develops reorganization plans Reviews legislative proposals of agencies The Cabinet Largely a fiction, not mentioned in Constitution President appoints or controls more members of cabinet than does prime minister Secretaries become preoccupied and defensive about their own departments Independent agencies, commissions, and judgeships President appoints members of agencies that have a quasi-independent status Agency heads serve a fixed term and can be removed only "for cause" Judges can be removed only by impeachment Who gets appointed? President knows few appointees personally Most appointees have had federal experience "In-and-outers"; alternate federal and private sector jobs No longer have political followings but picked for expertise Need to consider important interest groups when making appointments Rivalry between department heads and White House staff Presidential Character A. Eisenhower: orderly B. Kennedy: improviser C. Johnson: dealmaker D. Nixon: mistrustful E. Ford: genial F. Carter: outsider G. Reagan: communicator H. Bush: hands-on manager I. Clinton: focus on details J. Bush: a different kind of outsider Power to Persuade Formal opportunities for persuasion The three audiences Other politicians and leaders in Washington, D.C.; reputation very important Party activists and officials inside Washington The various publics Popularity and influence Presidents try to transform popularity into support in Congress Little effect of presidential coattails Members of Congress believe it is politically risky to challenge a popular president Popularity is unpredictable and influenced by factors beyond the president's control. The decline in popularity Popularity highest immediately after an election Declines by midterm after honeymoon period Power to Say No Veto Veto message Pocket veto (only before end of Congress) Congress rarely overrided vetoes in 1996 Executive privilege Confidential communications between president and advisers Justification Separation of powers Need for candid advice U.S. v.Nixon (1973) rejects claim of absolute executive privilege Impoundment of funds Defined: presidential refusal to spend funds appropriated by Congress Countered by Budget Reform Act of 1974 Requires president to notify Congress of funds he does not intend to spend Congress must agree in forty-five days The President’s Program Putting together a program President can try to have a policy on everything (Carter) President can concentrate on a small number of initiatives (Reagan) Constraints Public reaction may be adverse Limited time and attention span Unexpected crises Programs can be changed only marginally Need for president to be selective about what he wants Heavy reliance on opinion polls Impact of dramatic events and prolonged crises
Attempts to reorganize the executive branch An item on presidential agendas since the administration of Herbert Hoover Bush and the Department of Homeland Defense White House Office of Homeland Security created in aftermath of terrorist attack of September 11 Small staff Little budgetary authority No ability to enforce decisions Bush's call for a reorganization Creation of third largest cabinet department encompassing twenty-two federal agencies 170,000 employees and an annual budget of almost $40 million Fate of proposal is pending, but it is neither the first of its kind nor the largest Presidential Transition Few presidents serve two terms The vice president May succeed on death of president Has happened eight times John Tyler defined status of ascending vice president: president in title and in powers Rarely are vice presidents elected president Unless they first took over for a president who died Only five instances otherwise: Adams, Jefferson, Van Buren, Nixon, and Bush "A rather empty job" Candidates still pursue it Preside over Senate and vote in case of a tie Leadership powers in Senate are weak Impeachment Judges most frequent targets of impeachment Indictment by the House, conviction by the Senate How powerful is the president? Both president and Congress are constrained Reasons for constraints Complexity of issues Scrutiny of the media Power of interest groups
Characteristics of parliaments
Parliamentary system twice as common
Chief executive chosen by legislature
Cabinet ministers chosen from among members of parliament
Prime minister remains in power as long as his or her party or coalition maintains a majority in the legislature
Differences
Presidents are often outsiders; prime ministers are always insiders, chosen by party members in parliament
Presidents choose their cabinet from outside Congress; prime ministers choose members of parliament
Presidents have no guaranteed majority in the legislature; prime ministers always have a majority. The United States usually has a divided government.
Presidents and the legislature often work at cross-purposes
Even when one party controls both branches
A consequence of separation of powers
Only Roosevelt and Johnson had much luck with Congress
Divided versus unified government
Fifteen of twenty-two congressional/presidential elections since 1952 produced divided government
Americans dislike divided government because it can lead to gridlock.
Does gridlock matter?
But divided government enacts as many important laws as a unified government
Reason: Unified government is something of a myth in U.S.
Is policy gridlock bad?
Unclear whether gridlock is always bad; it is a necessary consequence of representative democracy
Representative democracy opposite direct democracy
Evolution of the Presidency
Delegates feared both anarchy and monarchy
Idea of a plural executive
Idea of an executive checked by a council
Concerns of the Founders
Fear of military power of president who could overpower states
Fear of presidential corruption of Senate
Fear of presidential bribery to ensure reelection
The electoral college
Each state to choose own method for selecting electors
Electors to meet in own capital to vote for president and vice president
If no majority, House would decide
The president's term of office
Precedent of George Washington and two terms
Twenty-second Amendment in 1951 limits to two terms
Problem of establishing the legitimacy of the office
Provision for orderly transfer of power
The first presidents
Prominent men helped provide legitimacy
Minimal activism of early government contributed to lessening fear of the presidency
Appointed people of stature in the community (rule of fitness)
Relations with Congress were reserved; few vetoes, no advice
The Jacksonians
Jackson sought to maximize powers of presidency
Vigorous use of veto for policy reasons
Challenged Congress
The reemergence of Congress
With brief exceptions the next hundred years was a period of congressional ascendancy
Intensely divided public opinion
Only Lincoln expanded presidential power
Asserted "implied powers" and power of commander in chief
Justified by emergency conditions
President mostly a negative force to Congress until the New Deal
Since the 1930s power has been institutionalized in the presidency
Popular conception of the president as the center of government contradicts reality; Congress often policy leader
The Powers of the Pres
Formal powers found in Article II
Not a large number of explicit powers
Potential for power found in ambiguous clauses of the Constitution, such as power as commander in chief and duty to "take care that laws be faithfully executed"
Greatest source of power lies in politics and public opinion
Increase in broad statutory authority
Expectation of presidential leadership from the public
The Office of the Pres
The White House Office
Contains the president's closest assistants
Three types of organization
Circular
Pyramid
Ad hoc
Staff typically worked on the campaign: a few are experts
Relative influence of staff depends on how close one's office is to the president's
The Exec Office of the Pres
Composed of agencies that report directly to the president
Appointments must receive Senate confirmation
Office of Management and Budget most important
Assembles the budget
Develops reorganization plans
Reviews legislative proposals of agencies
The Cabinet
Largely a fiction, not mentioned in Constitution
President appoints or controls more members of cabinet than does prime minister
Secretaries become preoccupied and defensive about their own departments
Independent agencies, commissions, and judgeships
President appoints members of agencies that have a quasi-independent status
Agency heads serve a fixed term and can be removed only "for cause"
Judges can be removed only by impeachment
Who gets appointed?
President knows few appointees personally
Most appointees have had federal experience
"In-and-outers"; alternate federal and private sector jobs
No longer have political followings but picked for expertise
Need to consider important interest groups when making appointments
Rivalry between department heads and White House staff
Presidential Character
A. Eisenhower: orderly
B. Kennedy: improviser
C. Johnson: dealmaker
D. Nixon: mistrustful
E. Ford: genial
F. Carter: outsider
G. Reagan: communicator
H. Bush: hands-on manager
I. Clinton: focus on details
J. Bush: a different kind of outsider
Power to Persuade
Formal opportunities for persuasion
The three audiences
Other politicians and leaders in Washington, D.C.; reputation very important
Party activists and officials inside Washington
The various publics
Popularity and influence
Presidents try to transform popularity into support in Congress
Little effect of presidential coattails
Members of Congress believe it is politically risky to challenge a popular president
Popularity is unpredictable and influenced by factors beyond the president's control.
The decline in popularity
Popularity highest immediately after an election
Declines by midterm after honeymoon period
Power to Say No
Veto
Veto message
Pocket veto (only before end of Congress)
Congress rarely overrided vetoes in 1996
Executive privilege
Confidential communications between president and advisers
Justification
Separation of powers
Need for candid advice
U.S. v.Nixon (1973) rejects claim of absolute executive privilege
Impoundment of funds
Defined: presidential refusal to spend funds appropriated by Congress
Countered by Budget Reform Act of 1974
Requires president to notify Congress of funds he does not intend to spend
Congress must agree in forty-five days
The President’s Program
Putting together a program
President can try to have a policy on everything (Carter)
President can concentrate on a small number of initiatives (Reagan)
Constraints
Public reaction may be adverse
Limited time and attention span
Unexpected crises
Programs can be changed only marginally
Need for president to be selective about what he wants
Heavy reliance on opinion polls
Impact of dramatic events and prolonged crises
Attempts to reorganize the executive branch
An item on presidential agendas since the administration of Herbert Hoover
Bush and the Department of Homeland Defense
White House Office of Homeland Security created in aftermath of terrorist attack of September 11
Small staff
Little budgetary authority
No ability to enforce decisions
Bush's call for a reorganization
Creation of third largest cabinet department encompassing twenty-two federal agencies
170,000 employees and an annual budget of almost $40 million
Fate of proposal is pending, but it is neither the first of its kind nor the largest
Presidential Transition
Few presidents serve two terms
The vice president
May succeed on death of president
Has happened eight times
John Tyler defined status of ascending vice president: president in title and in powers
Rarely are vice presidents elected president
Unless they first took over for a president who died
Only five instances otherwise: Adams, Jefferson, Van Buren, Nixon, and Bush
"A rather empty job"
Candidates still pursue it
Preside over Senate and vote in case of a tie
Leadership powers in Senate are weak
Impeachment
Judges most frequent targets of impeachment
Indictment by the House, conviction by the Senate
How powerful is the president?
Both president and Congress are constrained
Reasons for constraints
Complexity of issues
Scrutiny of the media
Power of interest groups